이상의 주제를 검토한 결과는 평범하다면 평범하다. 국왕과 지배층 사이에 공식적, 비공식적 소통이 잘 되었을 때 정치는 안정되었지만, 그렇지 않았을 때 정치는 불안했다. 그것은 ‘소통하면 몸이 아프지 않고, 불통하면 몸이 아프다.(通則不痛 不通則痛)’고 한 『동의보감』의 가르침과 다를 것이 없었다. 다시 강조하건대, 사람이나 국가나 할 것 없이 잘 소통하면 아프지 않고, 반대로 불통하면 아프다는 진리에서 벗어나지 않는다.

Structure of Communication between the King and Yangban

Shin Myung-ho (Pukyoung National University)

   In a Confucian society, an ideal monarch was described as a “sage” or “wise,” and the worst rulers were called “tyrants” and “wicked.” The basic meaning of “sage” or “wise” was that the king could hear and see things which were hidden; that is, the king could telepathically understand the minds of his subjects. On the other hand, tyrants and wicked rulers neither listened to nor saw things that could be heard and seen, and viciously enforced whatever policies they deemed fit. In this way, the leadership of a ruler in a Confucian society hinged on the ruler’s ability to communicate with the ruled.

  During the Joseon period, “sage kings” and “wise kings” were considered ideal models while tyrants and wicked kings were targets to be overthrown. In reality, however, ideal beings like sage and wise kings were literally ideal figures whom the people could hardly expect to materialize. So the Joseon people varied quite significantly in their recognition of an ideal leadership as well as expectations of such a monarch, and such visions turned into real-life institutions, laws, and practices. And these institutions, laws, and practices took different forms when it came to issues concerning various social classes. The ruler had different political relationships with the yangban and the common people, so he had to establish different forms of communication with each of those groups.

  From this critical approach, the communication structure between the king and yangban, the core ruling class, is addressed in Structure of Communication between the King and Yangban. In this work, five researchers each focus on a separate topic to review the communication structure between the king and yangban: (1) the structure of communication between the king and civil servants; (2) the structure of communication between the king and military officers; (3) the structure of communication between the king and meritorious retainers; (4) the structure of communication between the king and his relatives; and (5) how the structure of communication between the king and yangban was reflected in clothing. The subjects of this book, including the king, civil servants, military officers, meritorious retainers, and relatives, were truly the ruling class of Joseon. The king and his family were the official highest rulers of Joseon. Meritorious retainers founded the Joseon Dynasty and remained part of the core ruling class. Civil servants and military officers comprised the yangban bureaucracy system and were also part of the ruling class. Their rank was beyond dispute and requires no review.

  In the first section (structure of communication between the king and civil servants), the leadership of the king is examined through official and unofficial communication methods the king used with the civil servants. Previous research on Joseon civil servants has mainly focused on specific government offices and posts. Such studies did not inquire as to how the leadership qualities of the king and his system of communication with civil servants in the bureaucracy impacted the business of the state. Given the civil administration of Joseon, civil servants occupied the most critical seats in bureaucracy. Only civil servants and the king could be involved in policymaking. Accordingly, looking into the communication structure between the king and civil servants provides the first glimpse of the path of communication between the king and the bureaucratic system and how it actually operated.

  The second section on the subject of the communication between the king and the military looks at how the structure of communication between the king and his military officers was devised under the civilian administration of Joseon based on the yangban (which literally means two-literary and military-strata of elites) bureaucracy system. Research on the military in Joseon has only focused on its place in terms of its relationship with the civil servants, and independent research on the military elites is rare. There is some research on the military elites in the late-Joseon period, but such research was rather focused on examining the military elites’ political orientation or prominent military houses. It is time for the academic community to turn its attention to the task of examining this period’s communication between the king and the military, especially as in this period the military elites expanded their influence to the point of even the king finding it difficult to preserve his power without consulting the military. In that regard, this subject is expected to provide us with critical insight into the nature of the kings’ general leadership.

  The third section explains the official and unofficial structures of communication between the king and the meritorious retainers, who were divided into various ranks including Hunbong meritorious retainers, Jongmyobehyang meritorious retainers, Munmyyobehyang meritorious retainers, Jeong meritorious retainers, and Wonjong meritorious retainers, etc. Most research on meritorious retainers has only focused on the investitures’ political background or technical details of the institution itself. While they mostly examined political shifts between factions as well as interconnected political practices, research on the communication structure between the king and meritorious retainers was rare. Given that meritorious retainers were central figures in the political ruling elite of Joseon, the communication that took place between them and the king is an important issue. Therefore, political stability in many cases rested on the relationships and communication between the king and his meritorious retainers. Accordingly, understanding the various formal and informal structures of communication which linked the king and the meritorious retainers and preserved political stability is necessary in evaluating the nature of monarch’s leadership and the political process observed by the Joseon ruling class.

  The fourth section on the communication structure between the king and his relatives reviewed several key players and elements within the Royal family, including the king himself, Jongchin (King’s paternal relatives), Jongban, Wangchin, Cheokri, in-laws, relations by marriage, ceremonies, investitures, royal marriage, and lands bestowed by royal edicts, etc. Research on the monarch’s family in Joseon has mainly focused on the king’s immediate family and in-laws, who had blood or marriage ties to the king, or the fate of the in-law houses or royal marriages themselves. But few studies have ever questioned what the communication between the ruler and his family was really like. The king’s family and relatives were at the apex of a monarchical power structure and were responsible for conducting state and royal family ceremonies as well as guard the royal house. At the same time, these people were also carrying out plots in quests for power. Because of this, the king used a dualistic communication method of exerting control while also granting favors. In other words, this section illuminates how the king communicated with his own family to maintain political stability.

  The final section takes a look at the communication structure between the king and yangban as seen through clothing. It inquires into how the monarch and yangban communicated or attempted to communicate through court apparel. Research on clothing in Joseon concentrates on how the substance of clothing changed throughout the Joseon period. Moreover, court apparel was used to differentiate ranks in Joseon, and served as a visual means for magnifying the roles of the royal family, aristocrats, and common people through differences in each rank’s clothing. In-depth research on ceremonial clothing has also shown differences between the monarchs (who observed five rites) and noblemen (who observed four). However, research on how clothing played a role in communication between the monarch and yangban has never been properly done, whereas this research serves as a microscopic examination of how the king led the yangban using clothing as an apparatus.

  What this study ultimately wants to argue is rather simple: The state was politically stable when formal and informal communications between the king and ruling class carried on effectively, but when communication was ineffective, there were political ramifications and uncertainties. It is a simple lesson that we can also find in the Exemplar of Korean Medicine, which said “when it flows, the body does not hurt, but when it doesn’t, it hurts.” To underline what has already been said, in case of either a person or a country, fluent communication would spare the host from pain.

(Translated by Benjamin Engel)